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Roman military personal equipment
Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns, and it was used in an established way. These standard patterns and uses were called the ''res militaris'' or ''disciplina''. Its regular practice during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire led to military excellence and victory. The general word for army became ''exercitus''. Roman equipment (especially armor) gave them "a very distinct advantage over their barbarian enemies." 〔Elton, Hugh, 1996, ''Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425'', p. 110〕 This did not imply that every Roman soldier had better equipment than the richer men among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, Roman equipment was not of a better quality than that used by the majority of its adversaries.〔In Luttwak, E., ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', JHUP, 1979, Luttwak states that "Roman weapons, far from being universally more advanced, were frequently inferior to those used by... enemies"〕
Initially, they used weapons based on Greek and Etruscan models. On encountering the Celts, they based new varieties on Celtic equipment. To defeat the Carthaginians, they constructed an entire fleet ''de novo'' based on the Carthaginian model. Once a weapon was adopted, it became standard. The standard weapons varied somewhat during Rome's long history, but the equipment and its use were never individual.
==Overview of infantry==
Vegetius, 4th-century author of ''De Re Militari'', describes the equipment he believed had been used by heavy and light infantry earlier in the empire. The names of some weapons have been changed from the Latin to the Greek forms and Greek names have been preferred, for unknown reasons, perhaps because the center of Roman military power had shifted from Rome to Constantinople. Vegetius says in translation:〔Book 2 Chapter 15. The nominative singular of the weapon has been placed in parentheses.〕
The infantry (''armatura'') was heavy, because they had helmets (''cassis''), coats of mail (''catafracta''), greaves (''ocrea''), shields (''scutum''), larger swords (''gladius maior''), which they call broadswords (''spatha''), and some smaller, which they name half-broadswords (''semispathium''), five weighted darts (''plumbata'') placed in the shields, which they hurl at the beginning of the assault, then double throwables, a larger one with an iron point of nine ounces and a stock of five and one-half feet, which was called a ''pilum'', but now is called a spiculum, in the use of which the soldiers were especially practised, and with skill and courage could penetrate the shields of the infantry and the mail of the cavalry. The other smaller had five ounces of iron and a stock of three and one-half feet, and was called a ''vericulum'' but now is a ''verutum''. The first line, of ''hastati'', and the second, of ''principes'', were composed of such arms. Behind them were the bearers (''ferentarius'') and the light infantry, whom now we say are the supporters and the infantry, shield-bearers (''scutum'') with darts (''plumbata''), swords (''gladius'') and , armed just as are nearly all soldiers today. There were likewise bowmen (''sagittarius'') with helmet (''cassis''), coat of mail (''catafracta''), sword (''gladius''), arrows (''sagitta'') and bow (''arcus''). There were slingers (''funditor'') who slung small stones (''lapis'') in slings (''funda'') or cudgel-throwers (''fustibalus''). There were artillery-men (''tragularius''), who shot arrows from the ''manuballista'' and the ''arcuballista''.
In the late Roman Republic, and the early Roman Empire, most Roman infantry used swords (''gladii'') and specialized throwing spears (''pila'') as their main weapons. In the middle and Late Roman Empire, most Roman infantry used thrusting spears as their main weapons.〔Stephenson, I.P., 2001, ''Roman Infantry Equipment: The Later Empire'', p. 56〕
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